6.1. OOP Inheritance Patterns

• no inheritance

• single inheritance

• multilevel inheritance

• multiple inheritance (mixin classes)

single inheritance

One class inherits from one other class. Has one parent.

multilevel inheritance

One class inherits from other class, and yet another class inherits from it. This creates hierarchical structure.

multiple inheritance

mixin classes

One class derives from several other classes at once.

6.1.1. No Inheritance

>>> class Vehicle:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Car:
...     pass

6.1.2. Single Inheritance

>>> class Vehicle:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Car(Vehicle):
...     pass

6.1.3. Multilevel Inheritance

>>> class Vehicle:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class VehicleWithWindows(Vehicle):
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Car(VehicleWithWindows):
...     pass

6.1.4. Multiple Inheritance

• HasEngine and HasWindows are Mixin Classes

• Such classes are usually called: EngineMixin, WindowsMixin

>>> class Vehicle:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class HasEngine:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class HasWindows:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Car(Vehicle, HasEngine, HasWindows):
...     pass
...

6.1.5. Aggregation

>>> class Vehicle:
...     pass
...
>>> class Engine:
...     pass
...
>>> class Windows:
...     pass
...
>>>
>>> class Car(Vehicle):
...     parts = [Engine, Windows]

6.1.6. Composition

>>> class Vehicle:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Engine:
...     pass
...
>>> class Windows:
...     pass
...
>>>
>>> class Car(Vehicle):
...     engine = Engine
...     windows = Windows

6.1.7. Why Composition?

>>> class Mother:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Father:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Child:
...     mother: Mother
...     father: Father
...
...     def __init__(self, mother=Mother, father=Father):
...         self.mother = mother()
...         self.father = father()

>>> class StepFather:
...     pass
>>>
>>> me = Child(father=StepFather)

6.1.8. Use Case - 0x01

Following example is simple and easy to understand, but not totally accurate. Inheritance means, that a class is a specialized form of its base. This results in a subclass being an instance of a superclass. Which is weird when we think, that a Child might be its Parent in the same time.

No Inheritance:

>>> class Parent:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Child:
...     pass

Single Inheritance:

>>> class Parent:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Child(Parent):
...     pass

Multilevel Inheritance:

>>> class Grandparent:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Parent(Grandparent):
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Child(Parent):
...     pass

Multiple Inheritance:

>>> class Mother:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Father:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Child(Mother, Father):
...     pass

Aggregation:

>>> class Mother:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Father:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Child:
...     parents = [Father, Mother]

Composition:

>>> class Mother:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Father:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Child:
...     mother = Mother
...     father = Father

6.1.9. Use Case - 0x02

>>> class Mother:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Father:
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Child:
...     mother: Mother
...     father: Father
...
...     def __init__(self, mother=Mother, father=Father):
...         self.mother = mother()
...         self.father = father()

6.1.10. Use Case - 0x03

>>> class Vehicle:
...     engine: Engine
...     windows: Windows | None
>>>
>>> class Engine:
...     def engine_start(self): ...
...     def engine_stop(self): ...
...
>>> class Windows:
...     def window_open(self): ...
...     def window_close(self): ...
...
>>>
>>> class Car(Vehicle):
...     engine: Engine
...     windows: Windows
...
...     def __init__(self, windows=Windows, engine=Engine):
...         self.windows = windows()
...         self.engine = engine()
...
...     def engine_start(self):
...         if self.engine:
...             return self.engine.engine_start()
...
...     def engine_stop(self):
...         if self.engine:
...             return self.engine.engine_stop()
...
...     def window_open(self):
...         if self.windows:
...             return self.windows.windows_open()
...
...     def window_close(self):
...         if self.windows:
...             return self.windows.windows_close()

6.1.11. Use Case - 0x04

>>> class Encoder:
...     def encode(self, data):
...         ...
>>>
>>> class Decoder:
...     def decode(self, data):
...         ...
>>>
>>>
>>> class JSONSerializer:
...     encoder: Encoder
...     decoder: Decoder
...
...     def __init__(self,
...                  encoder: Encoder = Encoder,
...                  decoder: Decoder = Decoder,
...                  ) -> None:
...         self.encoder = encoder()
...         self.decoder = decoder()
...
...     def encode(self, data):
...        return self.encoder.encode(data)
...
...     def decode(self, data):
...         return self.decoder.decode(data)

Now, if you want to serialize your data, just create an instance and call method .encode() on it.

>>> DATA = {'firstname': 'Mark', 'lastname': 'Watney'}
>>> json = JSONSerializer()
>>> result = json.encode(DATA)

If you want to use your better version of encoder (for example which can encode datetime object. You can create a class which inherits from default Encoder and overwrite .encode() method.

>>> class MyBetterEncoder(Encoder):
...     def encode(self, data):
...         ...
>>>
>>> DATA = {'firstname': 'Mark', 'lastname': 'Watney'}
>>> json = JSONSerializer(encoder=MyBetterEncoder)
>>> result = json.encode(DATA)

6.1.12. Use Case - 0x05

>>> from datetime import date
>>> import json

JSON dumps works well, we we don't have any exotic types:

>>> DATA = {'firstname': 'Mark', 'lastname': 'Watney'}
>>> json.dumps(DATA)
'{"firstname": "Mark", "lastname": "Watney"}'

When we introduce date object, JSON cannot serialize it:

>>> DATA = {'firstname': 'Mark', 'lastname': 'Watney', 'birthdate': date(1969, 7, 21)}
>>> json.dumps(DATA)
Traceback (most recent call last):
TypeError: Object of type date is not JSON serializable

We can introduce MyEncoder and inject it into json.dumps() function:

>>> class MyEncoder(json.JSONEncoder):
...     def default(self, x):
...         if isinstance(x, date):
...             return x.isoformat()
...
>>>
>>> DATA = {'firstname': 'Mark', 'lastname': 'Watney', 'birthdate': date(1969, 7, 21)}
>>> json.dumps(DATA, cls=MyEncoder)
'{"firstname": "Mark", "lastname": "Watney", "birthdate": "1969-07-21"}'

6.1.13. Use Case - 0x06

Base classes:

>>> class Engine:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Windows:
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Radio:
...     pass

Standard Classes:

>>> class StandardEngine(Engine):
...     pass
>>>
>>> class StandardWindows(Windows):
...     pass
>>>
>>> class StandardRadio(Radio):
...     pass

Define Vehicle using composition:

>>> class Vehicle:
...     engine: Engine
...     windows: Windows | None
...     radio: Radio | None
...
...     def __init__(self, engine=StandardEngine, windows=StandardWindows, radio=StandardRadio):
...         self.engine = engine()
...         self.windows = windows()
...         self.radio = radio()

Usage:

>>> class PoorEngine(Engine):
...     ...
>>>
>>> class ElectricEngine(Engine):
...     ...
>>>
>>> class SuperRadio(Radio):
...     ...
>>>
>>> mercedes = Vehicle()
>>> maluch = Vehicle(engine=PoorEngine)
>>> tesla = Vehicle(engine=ElectricEngine, radio=SuperRadio)

If not specified, car will use Standard part (such as StandardEngine or StandardRadio). Thanks to composition we can override defaults.

6.1.14. Use Case - 0x07

>>> class Account:
...     def __init__(self, username):
...         self.username = username
>>>
>>> class User(Account):
...     pass
>>>
>>> class Admin(Account):
...     pass
>>>
>>>
>>> class Group:
...     members: list[Account] = [
...         User('mwatney'),
...         Admin('mlewis'),
...         User('rmartinez'),
...     ]

6.1.15. Use Case - 0x08

>>> import json
>>> import pickle
>>>
>>>
>>> class User:
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
...
...     def to_json(self):
...         data = vars(self)
...         return json.dumps(data)
...
...     def to_pickle(self):
...         return pickle.dumps(self)
...
...     def to_csv(self):
...         values = tuple(vars(self).values())
...         return ','.join(values) + '\n'

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney')
>>>
>>> mark.to_json()
'{"firstname": "Mark", "lastname": "Watney"}'
>>>
>>> mark.to_pickle()  
b'\x80\x04\x95D\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x8c\x08__main__\x94\x8c\x04User\x94\x93\x94)\x81\x94}\x94(\x8c\tfirstname\x94\x8c\x04Mark\x94\x8c\x08lastname\x94\x8c\x06Watney\x94ub.'
>>>
>>> mark.to_csv()
'Mark,Watney\n'

6.1.16. Use Case - 0x09

>>> import json
>>> import pickle
>>>
>>>
>>> class Serializable:
...     def to_json(self):
...         data = vars(self)
...         return json.dumps(data)
...
...     def to_pickle(self):
...         return pickle.dumps(self)
...
...     def to_csv(self):
...         values = tuple(vars(self).values())
...         return ','.join(values) + '\n'

>>> class User(Serializable):
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
>>>
>>>
>>> class Admin(Serializable):
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
>>>
>>>
>>> class Group(Serializable):
...     def __init__(self, members):
...         self.members = members
...
...     def to_csv(self):
...         raise NotImplementedError

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney')
>>>
>>> mark.to_json()
'{"firstname": "Mark", "lastname": "Watney"}'
>>>
>>> mark.to_pickle()  
b'\x80\x04\x95D\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x8c\x08__main__\x94\x8c\x04User\x94\x93\x94)\x81\x94}\x94(\x8c\tfirstname\x94\x8c\x04Mark\x94\x8c\x08lastname\x94\x8c\x06Watney\x94ub.'
>>>
>>> mark.to_csv()
'Mark,Watney\n'

6.1.17. Use Case - 0x0A

>>> import json
>>> import pickle
>>>
>>>
>>> class JSONSerializable:
...     def to_json(self):
...         data = vars(self)
...         return json.dumps(data)
>>>
>>> class PickleSerializable:
...     def to_pickle(self):
...         return pickle.dumps(self)
>>>
>>> class CSVSerializable:
...     def to_csv(self):
...         values = tuple(vars(self).values())
...         return ','.join(values) + '\n'

>>> class User(JSONSerializable, PickleSerializable, CSVSerializable):
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
>>>
>>>
>>> class Admin(JSONSerializable, PickleSerializable, CSVSerializable):
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname
>>>
>>>
>>> class Group(JSONSerializable, PickleSerializable):
...     def __init__(self, members):
...         self.members = members

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney')
>>>
>>> mark.to_json()
'{"firstname": "Mark", "lastname": "Watney"}'
>>>
>>> mark.to_pickle()  
b'\x80\x04\x95D\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x8c\x08__main__\x94\x8c\x04User\x94\x93\x94)\x81\x94}\x94(\x8c\tfirstname\x94\x8c\x04Mark\x94\x8c\x08lastname\x94\x8c\x06Watney\x94ub.'
>>>
>>> mark.to_csv()
'Mark,Watney\n'

6.1.18. Use Case - 0x0B

>>> import json
>>> import pickle
>>> from typing import Type
>>>
>>>
>>> class JSONSerializer:
...     @staticmethod
...     def to_json(instance):
...         fields = {k:v for k,v in vars(instance).items() if not k.startswith('_')}
...         return json.dumps(fields)
>>>
>>> class PickleSerializer:
...     @staticmethod
...     def to_pickle(instance):
...         fields = {k:v for k,v in vars(instance).items() if not k.startswith('_')}
...         return pickle.dumps(fields)
>>>
>>> class CSVSerializer:
...     @staticmethod
...     def to_csv(instance):
...         fields = {k:v for k,v in vars(instance).items() if not k.startswith('_')}
...         values = tuple(fields.values())
...         return ','.join(values) + '\n'
>>>
>>>
>>> class Serializable:
...     _json_serializer: Type[JSONSerializer] | None = None
...     _pickle_serializer: Type[PickleSerializer] | None = None
...     _csv_serializer: Type[CSVSerializer] | None = None
...
...     def to_json(self, cls=_json_serializer):
...         if cls is not None:
...             return cls.to_json(self)
...
...     def to_pickle(self, cls=_pickle_serializer):
...         if cls is not None:
...             return cls.to_pickle(self)
...
...     def to_csv(self, cls=_csv_serializer):
...         if cls is not None:
...             return cls.to_csv(self)

Groups are not CSV serializable:

>>> class Group(Serializable):
...     _json_serializer = JSONSerializer
...     _pickle_serializer = PickleSerializer
...     _csv_serializer = None
>>>
>>> class User(Serializable):
...     _json_serializer = JSONSerializer
...     _pickle_serializer = PickleSerializer
...     _csv_serializer = CSVSerializer
...
...     def __init__(self, firstname, lastname):
...         self.firstname = firstname
...         self.lastname = lastname

Dump to JSON using default serializer:

>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney')
>>> mark.to_json()

Dump to JSON using custom serializer:

>>> class MyJSONSerializer(JSONSerializer):
...     @staticmethod
...     def to_json(instance):
...         ...
>>>
>>> mark = User('Mark', 'Watney')
>>> mark.to_json(cls=MyJSONSerializer)

6.1.19. Further Reading

• https://github.com/django/django/blob/main/django/views/generic/base.py

• https://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas/blob/main/pandas/core/frame.py

• https://github.com/scikit-learn/scikit-learn/blob/main/sklearn/linear_model/_base.py#L533

6.1.20. Assignments

Code 6.44. Solution

"""
* Assignment: OOP InheritancePatterns SingleInheritance
* Type: class assignment
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 2 lines
* Time: 2 min

English:
    1. Create class `Account`
    2. Create class `User` which inherits from `Account`
    3. Create class `Admin` which inherits from `Account`
    4. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Stwórz klasę `Account`
    2. Stwórz klasę `User`, która dziedziczy po `Account`
    3. Stwórz klasę `Admin`, która dziedziczy po `Account`
    4. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0
    >>> from inspect import isclass

    >>> assert isclass(Account)
    >>> assert isclass(User)
    >>> assert isclass(Admin)
    >>> assert issubclass(User, Account)
    >>> assert issubclass(Admin, Account)
    >>> assert not issubclass(User, Admin)
    >>> assert not issubclass(Admin, User)
"""

# Create class `Account`
# type: type[Account]
class Account:
    pass

# Create class `User` which inherits from `Account`
# type: type[Account]
class User:
    pass

# Create class `Admin` which inherits from `Account`
# type: type[Account]
class Admin:
    pass

Code 6.45. Solution

"""
* Assignment: OOP InheritancePatterns NoInheritance
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 8 lines
* Time: 3 min

English:
    1. Create classes `MyAccount`, `Account`, `User`,  `Admin`
    2. Do not use inheritance
    3. Assignment demonstrates syntax, so do not add any attributes and methods
    4. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Stwórz klasy `MyAccount`, `Account`, `User`,  `Admin`
    2. Nie używaj dziedziczenia
    3. Zadanie demonstruje składnię, nie dodawaj żadnych atrybutów i metod
    4. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0
    >>> from inspect import isclass

    >>> assert isclass(Account)
    >>> assert isclass(User)
    >>> assert isclass(Admin)
    >>> assert isclass(MyAccount)
"""


# Create classes `MyAccount`, `Account`, `User`,  `Admin`
# Do not use inheritance, do not define attributes

Code 6.46. Solution

"""
* Assignment: OOP InheritancePatterns Multilevel
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 3 lines
* Time: 2 min

English:
    1. Create class `MyAccount` from classes `Account`, `User`, `Admin`
    2. Use multilevel inheritance
    3. Assignment demonstrates syntax, so do not add any attributes and methods
    4. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Stwórz klasę `MyAccount` z klas `Account`, `User`, `Admin`
    2. Użyj wielopoziomowego dziedziczenia
    3. Zadanie demonstruje składnię, nie dodawaj żadnych atrybutów i metod
    4. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0
    >>> from inspect import isclass

    >>> assert isclass(Account)
    >>> assert isclass(User)
    >>> assert isclass(Admin)
    >>> assert isclass(MyAccount)
    >>> assert issubclass(MyAccount, Account)
    >>> assert issubclass(MyAccount, User)
    >>> assert issubclass(MyAccount, Admin)

    >>> assert issubclass(Account, object)
    >>> assert issubclass(User, Account)
    >>> assert issubclass(Admin, User)
    >>> assert issubclass(MyAccount, Admin)

    >>> assert len(Account.__subclasses__()) == 1
    >>> assert len(User.__subclasses__()) == 1
    >>> assert len(Admin.__subclasses__()) == 1
    >>> assert len(MyAccount.__subclasses__()) == 0
"""

# Create classes `MyAccount`, `Account`, `User`,  `Admin`
# Use multilevel inheritance, do not define attributes
class Account:
    pass


class User:
    pass


class Admin:
    pass


class MyAccount:
    pass

Code 6.47. Solution

"""
* Assignment: OOP InheritancePatterns Multiple
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 1 lines
* Time: 2 min

English:
    1. Create class `MyAccount` from classes `Account`, `User`, `Admin`
    2. Use mixins classes
    3. Assignment demonstrates syntax, so do not add any attributes and methods
    4. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Stwórz klasę `MyAccount` z klas `Account`, `User`, `Admin`
    2. Użyj klas domieszkowych (mixin)
    3. Zadanie demonstruje składnię, nie dodawaj żadnych atrybutów i metod
    4. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0
    >>> from inspect import isclass

    >>> assert isclass(Account)
    >>> assert isclass(User)
    >>> assert isclass(Admin)
    >>> assert isclass(MyAccount)
    >>> assert issubclass(MyAccount, Account)
    >>> assert issubclass(MyAccount, User)
    >>> assert issubclass(MyAccount, Admin)

    >>> assert len(Account.__subclasses__()) == 1
    >>> assert len(User.__subclasses__()) == 1
    >>> assert len(Admin.__subclasses__()) == 1
    >>> assert len(MyAccount.__subclasses__()) == 0
"""

# Create classes `MyAccount`, `Account`, `User`,  `Admin`
# Use mixins classes, do not define attributes
class Account:
    pass


class User:
    pass


class Admin:
    pass


class MyAccount:
    pass

Code 6.48. Solution

"""
* Assignment: OOP InheritancePatterns Composition
* Complexity: easy
* Lines of code: 2 lines
* Time: 3 min

English:
    1. Define class `MyAccount` with attribute `type: Account`
    2. Use composition
    3. Allow for setting type `User` or `Admin` in `__init__()` method
    4. Assignment demonstrates syntax
    5. Run doctests - all must succeed

Polish:
    1. Zdefiniuj klasę `MyAccount` z atrybutem `type: Account`
    2. Użyj kompozycji
    3. Pozwól na ustawianie typu `User` or `Admin` w metodzie `__init__()`
    4. Zadanie demonstruje składnię
    5. Uruchom doctesty - wszystkie muszą się powieść

Tests:
    >>> import sys; sys.tracebacklimit = 0
    >>> from inspect import isclass

    >>> assert isclass(User)
    >>> assert isclass(Admin)
    >>> assert isclass(Account)
    >>> assert isclass(MyAccount)

    >>> result = MyAccount()
    >>> assert hasattr(result, 'type')

    >>> result = MyAccount()
    >>> assert hasattr(result, 'type')
    >>> assert not isclass(result.type)
    >>> assert isinstance(result.type, Account)
    >>> assert not isinstance(result.type, User)
    >>> assert not isinstance(result.type, Admin)

    >>> result = MyAccount(type=Account)
    >>> assert hasattr(result, 'type')
    >>> assert not isclass(result.type)
    >>> assert isinstance(result.type, Account)
    >>> assert not isinstance(result.type, User)
    >>> assert not isinstance(result.type, Admin)

    >>> result = MyAccount(type=User)
    >>> assert hasattr(result, 'type')
    >>> assert not isclass(result.type)
    >>> assert isinstance(result.type, Account)
    >>> assert isinstance(result.type, User)
    >>> assert not isinstance(result.type, Admin)

    >>> result = MyAccount(type=Admin)
    >>> assert hasattr(result, 'type')
    >>> assert not isclass(result.type)
    >>> assert isinstance(result.type, Account)
    >>> assert not isinstance(result.type, User)
    >>> assert isinstance(result.type, Admin)
"""

class Account:
    pass


class User(Account):
    pass


class Admin(Account):
    pass


# Use composition
# Define class `MyAccount` with attribute `type: Account`
# Allow for setting type `User` or `Admin` in `__init__()` method
class MyAccount:
    pass